Fire alarm systems are designed to protect people and their property from fire and smoke, but they cannot be relied upon unless they are routinely inspected by professionals. Regular inspection and maintenance also reduce expenses by preventing unbudgeted emergency repairs and costly false alarms.  

Fire Alarm Systems Can Be Damaged

Fire alarm systems can be damaged in the following ways:

• infiltration by dust, dirt and other contaminants;
• vandalism;
• remodeling;
• improper maintenance; and
• inadequate 
  performance of degraded 
  electronics.

How old is the system?

If you can find out the age of the system, you can get a better idea of inspection requirements.

• Systems less than five years old require little effort to maintain. In these new systems, problems are usually caused by improper installation, such as bad grounding, or environmental factors, such as voltage transients.
• Systems between five and 10 years old may experience component breakdown caused by harsh, but normal, environmental factors. Voltage fluctuations, temperature and humidity may cause system failure or nuisance alarm problems.
• Systems between 10 and 15 years old can still provide appropriate life-safety response. However, systems this old require close attention, even with proper maintenance procedures in place. If the system has a history of poor maintenance (or none at all), it's likely that failure of components will occur.
• Systems older than 15 years may be beyond their technological life expectancy. The system may continue to work satisfactorily, if properly maintained, but it will require testing and inspection by trained specialists to ensure that proper system response will occur in an emergency.

Inspection Steps   Few property inspectors are qualified to inspect fire alarm systems, and the International Standards of Practice for Inspecting Commercial Properties do not require inspectors to inspect fire alarm systems. However, some basic knowledge about systems outside of the scope of a general inspection can be helpful. In addition,  commercial property inspections give you the opportunity to educate your client about the importance of maintaining the fire protection systems in a commercial building. Your client needs to know that a fire alarm system requires periodic maintenance and an annual inspection by a licensed contractor, as required by code. You should advise your client to obtain the documentation of the previous annual maintenance inspections, which should be kept on site.  They should indicate the items inspected (smoke detectors, pull stations, horn/strobes, etc.), the condition they were in at the time of the inspection, and any repairs made to the system.   Specifically, the following steps are generally taken by contractors trained in fire-alarm system inspection:

• Set the sensitivity. This requires an understanding of the particular system, the specific application, and fire detection theory.
• Simulate inputs, and test the annunciators. This requires specific knowledge of the system under testing.
• Test and calibrate the alarm sensors, such as flame and smoke detectors, per the manufacturers' specifications. This requires knowing about the different sensors-and their testing requirements, failure modes, and re-installation requirements.
• Coordinate with the local fire department to test the input to their system.
• Check the battery for corrosion and expiration date, and then take appropriate action, if necessary.

  In summary, fire alarms in commercial buildings are essential life and property-saving systems, and they must be maintained and periodically inspected.  

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Birds are graceful creatures and essential to our eco-system, but when they enter human living and working spaces, they can become pests. Commercial properties, in particular, are vulnerable to the problems associated with pest birds, their nests and their droppings.  

Facts and Figures

• An apprentice elevator mechanic obtained a $2.7 million settlement from a property owner after bird droppings caused him to slip and fall down an elevator shaft.
• Bird droppings contain uric acid, which, at a pH of 3 to 4.5, can eat through most building materials.
• Birds, like many other animals, are drawn to the scent of their own waste. Thoroughly cleaning and deodorizing  surfaces eliminates this scent trail and discourages pest birds from following the scent back to their old roosts.
• Pest birds cause tens of millions of dollars of damage every year to machinery, automobiles, roofs and ventilation systems.

Problems Caused by Pest Birds to Commercial Properties

• noise:  Many species of birds produce an incessant and irritating noise when they gather in sizeable numbers. This noise can be a nuisance to building occupants and workers, and deter customers from returning to a business.
  
  
• nests:  Nests can damage buildings in the following ways:
  
  
  • roof damage:  Starling, pigeon and sparrow nests are often built in rain gutters, drains and the underside of roof corners. Warehouses, in particular, may experience great damage, even collapsed roofs, when drainage systems are blocked and standing water is forced to rise. A collapsed roof that results in death or serious physical damage could put a company out of business.
  • blocked ventilation systems:  Bird nests built in chimneys and ventilation systems can not only spread diseases through the system, but they can actually block airflow to the building. People can be killed by carbon monoxide poisoning when bird nests block the exhaust system.
  • fires:  Nests are usually flammable due to their construction of twigs, straw and dried droppings. Nests constructed in electric signs and machinery pose a severe fire risk.

• droppings:  Droppings account for some of the most visible and serious problems associated with pest birds, some of which are listed below:

• disease:  Researchers have found more than 60 transmittable bird-borne diseases and dangerous parasitic organisms that can be dangerous and even fatal to humans. Humans can inhale micro-organisms contained in dried-out bird droppings when they are disturbed, leading to lung diseases such as histoplasmosis. Toxoplasmosis and query fever can develop when humans ingest foods that have come into contact with bird-related bacteria. Also, property-destroying and disease-laden insects and mites are found on birds, their droppings and nesting materials.
• property:  Left undisturbed, bird waste can damage almost any building material. Wood, stone, steel and iron can all be damaged by bird droppings, which have a pH level similar to vinegar. If allowed to accumulate, droppings can clog gutters, discolor paint, corrode I-beams, ruin cloth awnings, and short out electrical equipment. Droppings commonly eat into and destroy wood, paper and cardboard packaging of products stored outdoors on pallets.
• roofs:  Bird droppings can eat away at many substrates, especially tar-based roofing materials. Droppings that are allowed to accumulate on roofs will eat into the material and eventually cause leaks. The life expectancy of a warehouse roof can be cut in half by a light, but continuous, layer of bird droppings.
• machinery:  Bird droppings can do heavy damage to air-conditioning equipment and industrial machinery. Also, workers are put at risk any time they work on or around machinery contaminated by bird droppings.
• automobile finishes:  Most bird droppings will fade paint finishes by eating into the protective coating and the paint itself. The longer the droppings are allowed to sit on the paint, the more damage they will do. Customers whose cars are defaced by bird droppings are less likely to return to that place of business!
• live birds:  Birds that enter building interiors can wreak havoc on commercial operations. Large, open areas, such as the insides of warehouses, airplane hangars, malls, factories and convention centers are often home to pest birds. Bird droppings can ruin plastics when they are being molded, destroy any number of chemicals and liquids that are being manufactured, ruin paint jobs on aircraft, and contaminate food that is being made or packaged. Droppings also spoil finished products in loading bays and storage areas. And, of course, droppings can rain down of the heads of customers and employees who are in the building. This latter issue can be of particular severity at indoor concerts, sporting events and in malls. 
• company image:  Droppings on or around a building convey to the public that the building is not properly maintained. Prospective customers may wonder how clean a restaurant's kitchen could be if bird droppings are dripping down the side of the building.
• slips and falls:  Bird droppings, which are slippery when fresh, may cause pedestrians, customers and/or employees to slip at such places as building entrances and fire escapes. Commercial property owners who fail to prevent bird infestation may be prone to huge legal liabilities.

Although InterNACHI's International Standards of Practice for Inspecting Commercial Properties do not require inspectors to determine the presence of birds, they still may be knowledgeable about bird infestation and deterrence. Consult with an InterNACHI inspector during your next scheduled inspection to find out the extent of the problem and possible corrective measures.

  Bird Deterrence Methods
Unlike homes and boats, commercial buildings can suffer damage from pest birds on a grand scale. The only viable solution is bird-proofing, which involves denying the birds access to nesting and roosting areas of a structure. This can be accomplished with products that make it uncomfortable for birds to roost in a particular area, or with products that make it physically impossible for birds to access the structure. The following options are available to commercial property owners who wish to be free of pest birds:

• "porcupine wire" or "bird spikes":  This simple, effective, and inexpensive bird-control method dates back to 1950, when newly invented porcupine-wire strips were installed on the structures of President Dwight D. Eisenhower's farm near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. They are available in species-specific sizes.
• pin and wire systems:  Birds will not land on these tight strands of wire. Installation of this system can be very labor-intensive and should only be used for repelling large birds. These systems work best when covering very narrow surfaces, such as railings, along balconies, and where there is moderate human activity. Some systems can now transmit a low-voltage current through the wires to help repel birds.
• scare-away devices:  Of the various scare-away devices available, balloons may be the most effective because they move around with the wind. It may be helpful to frequently change balloon position and color to help prevent birds from becoming accustomed to them.
• sticky paste and liquid repellents:  These types of products are non-drying, non-toxic, sticky substances that are spread onto a surface. The compound tends to irritate birds' feet so that they leave the protected area.
• safe chemical bird repellents:  Use safe chemical bird repellents that are regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). When a bird is exposed to a chemical bird repellent, they temporarily experience pain. The birds suffer no permanent harm, but they will associate the pain stimulus with the site and learn that the area is not desirable.
• bird netting:  Netting is a good choice for access prevention. If you have an open warehouse, a building, or an overhang where birds get up into the rafters and beams, bird netting is an effective, economical choice. Netting should be strong and lightweight, with 3/4-inch square openings or smaller. Larger openings may not prevent sparrows and other small birds from passing through.

Note:  Before purchasing a bird-control system, identify the types and number of birds causing the problem. Make note of the areas where birds are landing and roosting. If the birds are not present at the time of inspection, look for nests and droppings on the building, sidewalks, awnings and signs. Also, look for and eliminate any nearby water or food sources.

In summary, pest birds can damage property and endanger human health. Commercial property owners should discuss with an InterNACHI inspector if they suspect they have a problem with pest birds.

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Formaldehyde is a colorless, pungent-smelling chemical widely used in industries that manufacture building materials and numerous household products. Thus, it may be present in substantial concentrations in indoor environments. Where indoors may formaldehyde be found? •pressed-wood products (such as hardwood plywood wall paneling, particle board and fiberboard), and furniture made with these pressed-wood products.

Mobile homes are especially at risk for indoor formaldehyde pollution because of their abundance of composite wood in construction, and relatively compact interior space; •carpet backing and urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI). In the 1970s, many homes were insulated with UFFI as an energy-conservation measure before it was discovered that UFFI contained dangerously high levels of formaldehyde.

 Fortunately, formaldehyde emissions in this product decline over time, so older houses with UFFI are unlikely to have high levels of formaldehyde now. This insulation is not very common in modern housing; •tobacco smoke; •durable-press drapes and other textiles; •un-vented, fuel-burning appliances, such gas stoves and kerosene space heaters; and •glues. Is it dangerous? Four years after concern arose over high levels of formaldehyde found in some FEMA trailers, there is still a great deal of confusion regarding permissible levels of airborne formaldehyde in indoor environments. Formaldehyde is known to cause the following conditions: •watery eyes; •burning sensations in the eyes and throat; •nausea; •wheezing, coughing and difficulty breathing; •asthma attacks; •fatigue; •skin rash; •severe allergic reactions; and •cancer.

Uncertainty remains as to how to compare measured air concentrations of formaldehyde to cancer incidence. No definitive "high risk" level can be drawn because many other factors besides formaldehyde exposure play a role in the development of cancer. In general, however, the lower the level and shorter the duration of exposure, the less risk of cancer and other health effects there are. In 1992, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) declared formaldehyde a "toxic air contaminant," meaning that there is no safe level of exposure.

In June 2004, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) reclassified formaldehyde from “probably carcinogenic to humans” to “carcinogenic to humans,” specifically concerning nasopharyngeal (upper throat) cancer, while the National Toxicology Program (NTP) continues to classify formaldehyde as “reasonably anticipated to be a carcinogen in humans” for nasopharyngeal cancer. Steps to Reduce Exposure •Use "exterior-grade" pressed-wood products (lower-emitting, because they contain phenol resins, not urea resins). •Use air conditioning and dehumidifiers to maintain a moderate temperature and reduce humidity levels. •Increase ventilation, particularly after bringing new sources of formaldehyde indoors. •Seal non-laminated surfaces of products containing formaldehyde with paints, varnish or polyurethane-like materials.

 In summary, formaldehyde is an irritating and potentially dangerous gas that may accumulate in indoor environments.

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Water towers are large, elevated water storage containers designed to hold a water supply at a height sufficient to pressurize a water distribution system.  

How They Work

The height of the tower provides the hydrostatic pressure for the water supply system. The volume of the reservoir and the diameter of the piping regulate water pressure and flow rate. As the water level in the tank drops, a ballcock lets more water into the tank, in a design similar to a toilet, as described in greater detail in InterNACHI's article on that subject.

Designs

Water towers can be constructed from a variety of materials, such as steel, concrete or wood. The towers are usually spherical or cylindrical, but custom shapes are available to suit unique needs. Some water towers are quite large and serve whole communities, although, in certain areas, such as New York City, smaller water towers are constructed for individual buildings. Ornate coverings and fancy brickwork may be used to cover what may otherwise be an eyesore, or they may be simply painted. Some municipal water towers have the name of the city painted in large letters on the roof as a navigational aid to aviators.

Purposes

Water towers are used for the following purposes:

• They ensure that water will reach the upper floors of a building. New York City was one of the first cities to mandate the installation of water towers during the 1800s, which were required on every building higher than six floors;
• They ensure that water sprays from the tap with adequate force;
• They prevent backflow of groundwater into a system. In hilly areas, parts of a gravity-flow water supply may be subject to negative pressure, which can cause groundwater to be sucked into the system through leaks, bringing with it dirt, fertilizers and/or microorganisms.
• They reduce the chance that water will freeze during cold weather. It is difficult for water in a water tower to freeze if it is constantly being drained and refilled.
• They can supply water to a building during a power outage. They cannot supply water to a building indefinitely without electricity, however, because a pump is required to refill the tower.
• Water towers contain reservoirs to help provide water during peak usage times, reducing stress on the municipal water system.
• They are a cheaper alternative to pumps, which demand electricity and must be maintained.

Water Towers in New York City

Perhaps nowhere are water towers such an ingrained, yet anachronistic, element of a cityscape as in New York City. The robust steel and glass skyline there is dotted with small wooden water towers that are easy to mistake for vanishing relics of a bygone era. Many New Yorkers don't realize, however, that these towers are not antiques -- most people drink, brush their teeth and bathe from the water they provide every day.

Made from wood that is neither painted nor chemically treated, New York's water towers appear old as a necessary consequence of safeguarding potable water from contamination. They are still made from wood rather than more modern-looking metal, because metal is often prohibitively expensive. Even so, many New Yorkers have found value in the quaint, traditional feel that these towers convey, reminding a cutting-edge city of its past. In the New York community of Tribeca, water towers are required on all buildings regardless of whether or not they are functional.

The original water tower builders were barrel makers who expanded their craft to meet a modern need, as city buildings grew taller. Water towers were necessary to prevent the need for excessively high water pressure at lower heights, which could burst pipes. Today, New York water towers are all made by one of two local, family-owned companies -- Rosenwach Tank Company and the Isseks Brothers. Rosenwach has about 10,000 tanks in the city, and can build up to 300 a year - though they've been sluggish lately, as has much of the construction industry.

When the towers are filled for the first time they leak, but the wood quickly swells into a leak-proof membrane that will hold for 30 to 35 years. InterNACHI inspectors need only be concerned with leaking water towers, which probably need to be replaced. A crew of six men can tear down an old tank and install a new one in about 24 hours. It then takes several hours for pumps to fill them with water. Water exits from the top of the tank instead of the bottom, where natural sediments gradually accumulate. Periodic maintenance must be performed to remove natural sediments that accumulate at the base of the tank.

In summary, water towers are water storage containers that use the force of gravity to supply potable water to building and community residents. 

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Attic pull-down ladders, also called attic pull-down stairways, are collapsible ladders that are permanently attached to the attic floor. Occupants can use these ladders to access their attics without being required to carry a portable ladder.   Common Defects  

Homeowners, not professional carpenters, usually install attic pull-down ladders. Evidence of this distinction can be observed in consistently shoddy and dangerous work that rarely meets safety standards. Some of the more common defective conditions observed by inspectors include:

• cut bottom cord of structural truss. Often, homeowners will cut through a structural member in the field while installing a pull-down ladder, unknowingly weakening the structure. Structural members should not be modified in the field without an engineer's approval;
• fastened with improper nails or screws. Homeowners often use drywall or deck screws rather than the standard 16d penny nails or ¼" x 3" lag screws. Nails and screws that are intended for other purposes may have reduced shear strength and they may not support pull-down ladders;
• fastened with an insufficient number of nails or screws. Manufacturers provide a certain number of nails with instructions that they all be used, and they probably do this for a good reason. Inspectors should be wary of "place nail here" notices that are nowhere near any nails;
• lack of insulation. Hatches in many houses (especially older ones) are not likely to be weather-stripped and/or insulated. An uninsulated attic hatch allows air from the attic to flow freely into the home, which may cause the heating or cooling system to run overtime. An attic hatch cover box can be installed to increase energy savings;
• loose mounting bolts. This condition is more often caused by age rather than installation, although improper installation will hasten the loosening process;
• attic pull-down ladders are cut too short. Stairs should reach the floor; 
• attic pull-down ladders are cut too long. This causes pressure at the folding hinge, which can cause breakage;
• improper or missing fasteners;
• compromised fire barrier when installed in the garage;
  
• attic ladder frame is not properly secured to the ceiling opening;
• closed ladder is covered with debris, such as blown insulation or roofing material shed during roof work. Inspectors can place a sheet on the floor beneath the ladder to catch whatever debris may fall onto the floor; and
• cracked steps. This defect is a problem with wooden ladders.
  
• In sliding pull-down ladders, there is a potential for the ladder to slide down quickly without notice. Always pull the ladder down slowly and cautiously. 

Relevant Codes

The 2009 edition of the International Building Code (IBC) and the 2006 edition of the International Residential Code (IRC) offer guidelines regarding attic access, although not specifically pull-down ladders. Still, the information might be of some interest to inspectors.

2009 IBC (Commercial Construction):

1209.2 Attic Spaces. An opening not less than 20 inches by 30 inches (559 mm by 762 mm) shall be provided to any attic area having a clear height of over 30 inches (762 mm). A 30-inch (762 mm) minimum clear headroom in the attic space shall be provided at or above the access opening.

2006 IRC (Residential Construction):

R807.1 Attic Access. Buildings with combustible ceiling or roof construction shall have an attic access opening to attic areas that exceed 30 square feet (2.8m squared) and have a vertical height of 30 inches (762 mm) or more. The rough-framed opening shall not be less than 22 inches by 30 inches, and shall be located in a hallway or readily accessible location. A 30-inch (762 mm) minimum unobstructed headroom in the attic space shall be provided at some point above the access opening.

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Adjustable steel columns, also known as screw jacks and beam jacks, are hollow steel posts designed to provide structural support. An attached threaded adjustment mechanism is used to adjust the height of the post.  

A few facts about adjustable steel columns:

• They are usually found in basements.
• In some parts of North America, adjustable steel columns are called "lally columns," although this term sometimes applies to columns that are concrete-filled and non-adjustable.
• They can be manufactured as multipart assembles, sometimes called telescopic steel columns, or as single-piece columns.
  

The following are potentially defective conditions:

• The post is less than 3 inches in diameter. According to the 2006 International Residential Code (IRC), Section R407.3, columns (including adjustable steel columns)...
  
  "shall not be less than 3-inch diameter standard pipe."
  

Poles smaller than three inches violate the IRC, although they are not necessarily defective. A 2½-inch post may be adequate to support the load above it, while a 4-inch post can buckle if the load exceeds the structural capacity of the post. Structural engineers, not inspectors, decide whether adjustable steel posts are of adequate size.

• The post is not protected by rust-inhibitive paint. The IRC, in section R407.2, states,
  

All surfaces (inside and outside) of steel columns shall be given a shop coat of rust-inhibitive paint, except for corrosion-resistant steel and steel treated with coatings to provide corrosion resistance.

Inspectors will not be able to identify paint as rust-inhibitive. In dry climates where rust is not as much of a problem, rust-inhibitive paint may not be necessary. Visible signs of rust constitute a potential defect.

• The post is not straight. According to some sources, the maximum lateral displacement between the top and bottom of the post should not exceed 1 inch. However, tolerable lateral displacement is affected by many factors, such as the height and diameter of the post. The post should also not bend at its mid-point. Bending is an indication that the column cannot bear the weight of the house.
• The column is not mechanically connected to the floor. Inspectors may not be able to confirm whether a connection between the post and the floor exists if this connection has been covered by concrete.
• The column is not connected to the beam. The post should be mechanically connected to the beam above to provide additional resistance against lateral displacement.
• More than 3 inches of the screw thread is exposed.
• There are cracks in upstairs walls. This condition may indicate a failure of the columns. 

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• Black widow spiders are perhaps the most venomous spiders in North America. 

•  
  • Identification:  The female black widow is normally shiny black, with a red "hourglass" marking on the underside of the abdomen. The abdominal marking may range in color from yellowish-orange to red, and its shape may range from an hourglass to a dot. In a few widow spiders, however, no pattern is obvious on the abdomen. The body of an adult black widow female is about 1/2-inch long, while the male widow spiders are smaller. They usually are not black in overall color, and instead appear light brown or gray and banded. Male widows may have an hourglass pattern, but coloration often is more orange and sometimes yellow. Widow spiders build loose and irregular mesh-type webs, often on plants, in loose stone and wood piles, and in the corners of rooms, garages and outbuildings. They do not produce the symmetrical web typical of orb-weaving spiders  or the distinctive "funnel" pattern of funnel weaver spiders.
    
    
  • Symptoms of Bite:  While the area around the bite may result in swelling, the venom is primarily a neurotoxin which does not cause significant localized tissue death. Rather, the venom, as well as other neurotoxins, affect the nervous system of the afflicted animal. Without medical attention, the symptoms of a black widow bite can last for days, and a complete recovery may take weeks. Black widow bites commonly cause the following symptoms:
    • painful rigidity in the muscles of the abdomen;
    • tightness in the chest accompanied by labored breathing;
    • elevated blood pressure;
    • elevated body temperature;
    • nausea; and
    • sweating.

Death is uncommon (less than 1% of the reported cases), but in the elderly or very young, death may occur from asphyxia. Seek medical attention if you suspect you have been bitten.

•  
  • Habitat:  Black widow spiders and their relatives can be found almost anywhere in the Western hemisphere in damp and dark places. The spider prefers the following exterior environments:  woodpiles, rubble piles, under stones, in hollow stumps, and in rodent burrows, sheds and garages. Indoors, they are found in undisturbed, cluttered areas in basements and crawlspaces.

• Brown Recluse:  Along with the black widow, the brown recluse is potentially the most dangerous spider in North America. Despite their reclusive habits, they do occasionally bite humans. Recluses typically bite when they are trapped between flesh and another surface, as when a sleeping human rolls over on a prowling spider, or when a person is putting on clothing or shoes containing the spider.
  
  
  • Identification:  The brown recluse is usually between 1/4-inch to 3/4-inch (6mm to 20mm) but may grow larger. They are notable for their characteristic "violin" pattern on the back of their cephalothorax -- the body part to which the legs attach. These spiders are not aggressive and bite only when threatened, usually when pressed up against the victim's skin. They seek out dark, warm, dry environments such as attics, closets, porches, barns, basements, woodpiles and old tires. 
    
    
  • Symptoms of Bite:
    • severe pain at bite site after about four hours;
    • severe itching;
      
    • nausea;
    • vomiting;
      
    • fever;
      
    • muscle pain; and
      
    • potentially severe localized tissue damage.

• Hobo Spider:  This spider is not native to the U.S., but by the mid-1960s, it had become established in Washington, Oregon, Idaho and British Columbia. Current distribution places it also in Montana, northern Utah, and western Wyoming. Although the bite of the hobo spider is initially painless, it can be serious. Hobo spiders are often confused with wolf spiders, which produce a painful but relatively harmless bite. If serious symptoms develop, the victim should seek medical attention.

• Symptoms of bite: 
  • immediate redness, which develops around the bite;
  • after 24 hours, the bite develops into a blister, and after 24 to 36 hours, the blister breaks open, leaving an open, oozing ulceration;
  • severe headache;
  • temporary memory loss;
  • impairment of vision;
  • nausea; and
  • weakness.
    

Preventing Spider Infestation

Spiders
Most spiders pose no threat to humans. In fact, of the 20,000 species of spiders that inhabit the Americas, only 60 are capable of biting humans. Within that small group, only a handful of species are known to be dangerous to humans. Of these, only the brown recluse and the black widow have ever been associated with significant harm and rare reports of death. Tarantula bites, despite common fears, are not significantly more dangerous to humans than wasp stings.

• Black widow spiders are perhaps the most venomous spiders in North America. 

•  
  • Identification. The female black widow is normally shiny black, with a red hourglass marking on the underside of the abdomen. The abdominal marking may range in color from yellowish orange to red and its shape may range from an hourglass to a dot. In a few widow spiders, however, no pattern is obvious on the abdomen. The body of an adult black widow female is about 1/2 inch long while the male widow spiders are smaller. They usually are not black in overall color, instead appear light brown or gray and banded. Male widows may have an hourglass pattern, but coloration often is more orange and sometimes yellow. Widow spiders build loose and irregular mesh-type webs, often on plants, in loose stone or wood piles, or in the corners of rooms, garages or outbuildings. They do not produce the symmetrical web typical of orb weaving spiders  or the distinctive funnel pattern web of the funnel weaver spiders.
    
    
  • Symptoms of bite. While the area around the bite may experience swelling, the venom is primarily a neurotoxin, which does not cause significant local tissue death and destruction. Rather, the venom, as well as other neurotoxins, affects the nervous system of the afflicted animal. Without medical attention, the symptoms of a black widow bite can last for days and a complete recovery may take weeks. Black widow bites commonly cause the following ailments:
    • painful rigidity in the muscles of the abdomen
    • tightness in the chest and labored breathing
    • increase in blood pressure
    • a rise in body temperature
    • nausea
    • sweating
    • death is uncommon (less than 1% of the reported cases), but in the elderly or very young death may occur from asphyxia. Seek medical attention if you suspect you have been bitten.
      
      
  • Habitat. Black widow spiders and their relatives can be found almost anywhere in the Western hemisphere of the world in damp and dark places. The spider prefers the following environments: woodpiles, rubble piles, under stones, in hollow stumps, and in rodent burrows, sheds and garages. Indoors, they are found in undisturbed, cluttered areas in basements and crawl spaces.

• Brown Recluse. Along with the black widow, the brown recluse is potentially the most dangerous spider in North America. Despite their reclusive habits, they do occasionally bite humans. Recluses typically bite when they are trapped between flesh and another surface, as when a sleeping human rolls over on a prowling spider, or when putting on clothing or shoes containing the spider.
  
  
  • Identification. The brown recluse is usually between 1/4 inch to 3/4 inch (6mm 20mm), but may grow larger. They are notable for their characteristic violin pattern on the back of their cephalothorax-the body part to which the legs attach. These spiders are not aggressive and bite only when threatened, usually when pressed up against the victim's skin. They seek out dark, warm, dry environments such as attics, closets, porches, barns, basements, woodpiles and old tires. 
    
    
  • Symptoms of bite:
    • Severe pain at bite site after about four hours;
    • Severe itching;
      
    • Nausea;
    • Vomiting;
      
    • Fever;
      
    • muscle pain; and
      
    • Potentially severe local tissue damage.

• Hobo Spider. This spider is not native to the U.S., but by the mid 1960's, it had become established in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and British Columbia. Current distribution places it also in Montana, northern Utah, and western Wyoming. Although the bite of the hobo spider is initially painless, the bite can be serious. Hobo spiders are often confused with Wolf Spiders, which produce a painful but relatively harmless bite. If serious symptoms develop, the victim should seek medical attention.

• Symptoms of bite: 
  • immediate redness, which develops around the bite;
  • After 24 hours, the bite develops into a blister and after 24-36 hours, the blister breaks open, leaving an open, oozing ulceration;
  • severe headache;
  • temporary memory loss;
  • impairment of vision;
  • nausea; and
  • weakness.
    

Spider Prevention

Entry of spiders into homes can be discouraged by increasing lighting of darkened corners, such as by appropriate furniture arrangement or use of artificial lighting. Insecticides should be applied in dark, undisturbed areas where spiders are likely to produce webs. Insecticides also can be used to prevent spider migrations into homes by spraying around the exterior foundation and lower story windows. Preventative spraying should be performed before temperatures get cold, as at this point spiders, and other insects, may have already entered the house. The insecticide chlorpyrifos (Dursban) is the most widely available product for control of spiders around a home. Chlorpyrifos has a residual effectiveness of several weeks, particularly if not exposed to light and moisture. However, it is moderately toxic to humans.   

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Snakes Rattlesnakes, copperheads, and other snakes often reside in crawlspaces with dirt floors or in a home's landscaping and drainage. Snakes are easily startled and may react aggressively toward intruders. The following snakes may be encountered during inspections:

• Bullsnakes are large, non-venomous snakes common in the central parts of the U.S., northern Mexico and Southern Canada. They are usually yellow in color, with brown, black or reddish colored blotching. Due to its patterns and semi-keeled scalation, the bullsnake is often mistaken for the Western Diamondback rattlesnake. The Bull snake capitalizes on this similarity by performing an impressive rattlesnake impression when threatened; the snake can create a convincing "rattle" sound and flatten its head to appear more characteristically triangular. Their rattlesnake mimic is so impressive that it is frequently the bull snake's undoing when discovered by humans.

• Copperheads are fairly large, venomous snakes with broad, triangular heads, vertically elliptical pupils and heat sensitive pits between each eye and nostril. The body is tan to brown with dark hourglass-shaped crossbands down the length of the body. Small dark spots are common between crossbands on the back. The unpatterned head is dull orange, copper or rusty-red. When young, a copperhead has a yellow-tipped tail. The head is solid brown, and there are two tiny dots in the center of the top of the head. Copperheads are quite tolerant of habitat alteration and remain common in suburban areas of many large cities. They can be found throughout the eastern and central United States but are absent from most of Florida and south-central Georgia. Copperhead bites can be painful although the symptoms are generally not as severe as bites from rattlesnakes.
  
  
• Coral snakes possess the most potent venom of any North American snakes and they can be found in a number of southern states (from North Carolina to Texas), although they account for less than 1% of venomous snake bites in the U.S. There are several reasons why they don't claim more human victims - they have short fangs that have difficulty penetrating clothing, they are more reclusive than most other snakes, and they typically inject only a relatively small quantity of venom when they bite. Any skin penetration, however, is a medical emergency that requires immediate attention. Coral snakes have a powerful neurotoxic venom that paralyzes the breathing muscles. The following symptoms are characteristic of coral snake envenomation:
  
  
  • nausea;
  • drowsiness;
  • vomiting;
  • excessive salivation;
    
  • difficulty breathing; and 
    
  • paralysis. 
    It is important to note that coral snake bites do not result in significant swelling, discoloration or pain, and effects of the venom may take hours to develop.
  
  Identification: Physically, coral snakes are anomolies among North American venomous snakes. Unlike rattlesnakes, cottonmouths and copperheads, coral snakes are not pit vipers. They thus lack the characteristic pit viper triangular head, vertically-oriented eyes and they are quite small, shy and may appear harmless. Fortunately, they can be easily identified by their distinctive color red, yellow and black color pattern. The sequence of these colors, red-yellow-black, is critical for identification, as other snakes perform a successful mimicry except in this one aspect. The harmless milk snake, for instance, would appear almost identical if its color pattern were not red-black-yellow. A useful way to remember this distinction is, "Red touch yellow, kill a fellow. Red touch black, poison lack."
  
  
• Garter snakes are harmless, and can be found everywhere from Canada to Central America. Most Garter snakes are striped or banded lengthwise, and some are spotted between the stripes. They are found in moist environments and most varieties are roughly two feet long.

• Rattlesnakes are the most dangerous venomous snakes in North America. They bite thousands of people annually, although very few bites are fatal. The rattlesnake is easily distinguished by a rattle at the end of its tail, which is composed of a series of dried, hollow segments of skin which, when shaken, make a rattling sound. When the snake is alarmed, it shakes its tail, and the noise serves as a warning to the attacker. While most rattlesnakes are concentrated in the southwestern United States, they extend north, east and south in diminishing numbers and varieties. Every contiguous state has one or more varieties of rattlesnake. Rattlesnakes can be identified in the following ways:

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  • broad, triangular head;
  • eyes have vertical "cat-like" pupils;
  • scales are keeled (raised center ridge);
  • body appears heavy or fat in the middle;
  • large tubular fangs in mouth that fold out when the mouth opens;
  • blunt tail with rattle. Baby rattlesnakes don't have rattles and some adult snakes may break or lose their rattles; and
  • typically, rattlesnakes range from 3' to 4' in length. Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes can be significantly longer, however, sometimes in excess of seven feet.
     
    Symptoms of rattlesnake bites:

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  • pain and swelling in the area surrounding the bite (Swelling may take several hours to develop);
  • rapid pulse and labored breathing;
  • progressive, general weakness;
  • visual impairment;
  • nausea and vomiting;
  • seizures; and
    
  • drowsiness or unconsciousness

• Differentiating Bullsnakes from Rattlesnakes
  The following tips can help prevent any confusion between these two snakes:

• Bullsnakes have no rattler. When threatened, they will often forcefully vibrate their tails, which serves as a warning to potential predators. In dry leaves or grass, this will produce a sound that is quite similar to one emitted by a rattlesnake. Another related indicator is that bull snakes will keep their tails low to the ground while producing ther rattling sound while most rattlesnakes will elevate their tail while rattling.
• Although the two often have similar patterns, bullsnakes are generally cream or pale yellow in color with brown or black markings; rattlesnakes, on the other hand, are typically much darker, depending upon the subspecies.
• The body of a bullsnake is more streamlined than that of a rattlesnake. A bullsnake will be noticeably thinner and its body will become consistently narrower down to its tail, which ends at a defined point. A rattlesnake will appear thicker, particularly in its mid-section, with a more rounded tail due to its rattle.
• The head of a bullsnake is nearly identical in size to the upper portion of its body. The head of a rattlesnake, however, is more triangular in shape and is perceptibly wider than its upper body.
• bullsnakes' pupils are circular, while those of rattlesnakes are vertically-oriented. All venomous snakes in North America have vertically-oriented pupils, except for the coral snake.
  
• Bullsnakes lay eggs, while rattlesnakes give birth to live offspring.
  

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Venomous pests are found virtually everywhere, and inspectors risk encountering one while visiting a property. For their safety, as well as the safety of their clients, inspectors should learn how to identify venomous insects and reptiles.    Bees and Wasps
Bees and wasps are flying, stinging insects commonly found in and around homes throughout much of the world. Stings from these insects are normally not serious, except in people who are allergic to the venom or when large numbers of the insects attack at once. Even when they are not a serious threat, bees and wasps can be a nuisance and a source of fear, especially during the summer months when people gather outside the home. 

• A few facts about bees and wasps:

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  • More than one half of all fruit and vegetable crops are pollinated by honey bees
  • Wasps contribute by preying on many pest insects harmful to crops

• Bees vs. Wasps: While many homeowners refer to bees and wasps interchangeably, inspectors should know the ways in which they differ.  Differentiation between these insects is important because different methods may be necessary to remove them if they become a nuisance. Bees and wasps differ in the following ways:

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  • Bees feed solely on pollen. Wasps, by contrast, are predatory and feed mostly on insects. Some common bees are honeybees, carpenter bees and bumblebees. Some common wasps are yellowjackets, hornets and paper wasps. Yellowjackets and hornets can appear virtually identical, although hornets usually have larger heads.
  • While bees have robust, hairy bodies with flat rear legs, wasps' bodies are slender with narrow waists connecting the thorax and abdomen. Wasps appear smooth and shiny and have slender legs shaped like cylinders.
  • Wasps, especially yellowjackets, are generally more aggressive than bees and they are more likely to come into contact with humans while in search of food. Wasps can become a nuisance in the warmer months because they often disrupt outdoor activities where meats and sweet liquids are present. A flying insect that repeatedly lands on a hot dog at a picnic or circles a dumpster is almost certainly not a bee.
  • Stinging wasps can sting repeatedly, while honeybees will die shortly after stinging once. Other bees, however, can sting repeatedly. 

• Where in and around homes do bees and wasps nest?

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  • Bees and wasps prefer attics because they are warm and protected. They will find it easier to enter and infest an attic that is covered by slate or wood roofing than metal or asphalt shingles. Poor flashing may also be cause for easy insect entry. Inspectors entering attics with open (unscreened) gable vents should be on the lookout for bee or wasp infestation.
    
  • Yellowjackets typically nest underground using existing hollows. Occasionally, nests can be found in dark, enclosed areas in a building, such as crawl spaces, wall voids or attics. Nests are enclosed in a paper envelope, but they are rarely exposed or observed unless excavated. The nest entrance is small and inconspicuous. Colonies are readily defended and yellowjackets will sting when the nest area is disturbed.
  • Hornets produce large, conspicuous grayish paper nests in trees, shrubs and beneath building eaves.
  • Paper wasps will nest in small cavities in the sides of buildings, within metal gutters and poles, outdoor grills, and similar items.
  • Honeybees, unlike wasps or any other bees, produce a persistent, perennial colony. These hives can be very large and contain tens of thousands of bees and are usually found outdoors, especially on trees. Hives that are discovered inside buildings must be eliminated as soon as possible. If allowed to develop, large amounts of wax and honey will be produced which may damage the building when the hive dies out or when the combs melt due to excessive heat. Rodents and insects will also be attracted to this site.
  • Bumblebee nests are commonly constructed in abandoned rodent burrows, but they may also be found indoors in small hollow spaces, particularly if there are insulating debris available.

• Nest control. Nests should be destroyed if they are close enough to humans to pose a stinging threat. They should always be approached with caution, preferably at night when most of the "workers" are present but reluctant to fly. A few additional tips: 
  

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  • Be aware that bees and wasps are attracted to lights, especially flashlights carried by inspectors as they enter dark attics or crawl spaces.
  • Use extreme caution when performing bee or wasp control from a ladder.
  • If a nest is not discovered until fall, control may be unnecessary, as imminent freezing temperatures will kill the colony. 
  • If there is direct access to the nest, a fast-acting dust or wettable powder formulation can be applied. If the nest must be removed during the daytime, a can of aerosol insect killer can be used to keep the bees or wasps at bay. Heavy clothing can be worn for added protection

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